Determination of the Focal Length of a Convex Lens

Determination of the Focal Length of a Convex Lens Shaikh Ilyas AIM: To determine the focal length of converging lens and it’s radius of curvature. HYPOTHESIS: The relationship between u and v and the focal length f for a convex lens is given by . Where f is the focal length, u is the distance between the object and the lens v is the distance between the image and the lens. Real and Virtual Images: Lenses produce images by refraction that are said to be either real or virtual. Real images are created by the convergence of rays and can be projected onto a screen; real images form on the side of the lens that is opposite to the object and by convention have a positive image distance value; Virtual images are formed by the apparent extrapolation of diverging rays and cannot be formed on a screen, whereas virtual images form on the same side of the lens as the object and have a negative image distance value.[1] [2] BACKGROUND: For a thin double convex lens,refractionacts to focus all parallel rays to a point referred to as the principal focal point. The distance from the lens to that point is the principal focal length f of the lens. Below is the derivation of the lens formula Following graphic illustrates a simple lens model: [3] where, h= height of the object h’= height of the object projected in an image G and C = focal points f= focal distance u= Distance between the object and the focal point O= Centre of the lens v= Distance between the centre of the lens and image plane Assumptions Lens is very thin Optical axis is perpendicular to image plane Proving is true. Proof In ΔAHO, In ΔEDO, ∠´ (1) In ΔBOC, In ΔEDC, ∠´ (2) Equating equations (1) and (2), Dividing both sides by v, Hence the formula is proved. VARIABLES: Independent: Distance between the candle and the lens Dependent: Distance (v) from the image to the lens Control: This experiment was conducted in an almost dark room. Same sheet of paper used as the screen. A stable candle flame The time taken for a sharp and focused image to settle The size of the candle. METHOD FOR CONTROLLING VARIABLES: Made sure that the room was sufficiently dark enough to carry out this experiment as smoothly as possible without any entrance of light from the outside. So I pulled down the blinds of the windows and also made sure that there was no draught present in the room that can make the candle flame unstable. Moreover, I waited for around 6-7 seconds for the image to be seen as sharp and focused. And throughout this experiment I used candles of the same make and size. APPARATUS REQUIRED: 2 meter rules A white screen Candle Convex lens PROCEDURE: I divided this experiment in to 2 parts, A and B. In part A, I experimented using a single lens at a time, while in part B, I used 2 lens in contact at a time. Part A: Firstly I set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1 above by making the distances v and u the same. So the image observed on a plain white screen was focused and clear Recorded the value of the lengths u and v and thereby marking these original points using a chalk on the bench. Then I adjusted the length of u by moving it away from the lens by 5cm. Consequently, I adjusted the length of v until a sharp and focused image was seen. Recorded this distance of u and v Repeated step 3 4 for 7 different values of u by increasing the distance by 5 cm in each step. And recorded the values of u and v for every increment. Then I placed the candle and the screen back in their original marked positions. Finally, repeated the steps 1-8 by using different convex lenses A, B, C, D and E. Figure 1: Setup of the apparatus for Part A Part B: Firstly I set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2 by making the distances v and u the same. So the image observed on a plain white screen was focused and clear Recorded the value of the lengths u and v and thereby marking these original points using a chalk on the bench. Then I adjusted the length of u by moving it away from the lens by 5cm. Consequently, I adjusted the length of v until a sharp and focused image was seen. Recorded this distance of u and v Repeated step 3 4 for 4 different values of u by increasing the distance by 5 cm in each step. And recorded the values of u and v for every increment. Repeated the above steps 1-5, thrice. Figure 2: Setup of the apparatus for Part B DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING: Part A: Table 1: Data collected for convex lens A Table 2: Data collected for convex lens B Table 3: Data collected for convex lens C Table 4: Data collected for convex lens D Table 5: Data collected for convex lens E Part B: Table 6: Data collected for Trial 1 Table 7: Data collected for Trial 2 Table 8: Data collected for Trial 3 Using the formula, R = 2f I can calculate the value for the radius of curvature. The value of f can be found using the equation. Part A: Table 9:Data processing for convex lens A Standard deviation: ÃŽ ´m = = = 0.30967 Therefore, the focal length is 10.01+ 0.31 cm The % error = = 3.1% Table 10:Data processing for convex lens B Standard deviation: ÃŽ ´m = = = 0.47044 Therefore, the focal length is 10.26+ 0.47 cm The % error = = 4.6% Table 11:Data processing for convex lens C Standard deviation: ÃŽ ´m = = = 0.30500 Therefore, the focal length is 9.89+ 0.31 cm The % error = = 3.1% Table 12:Data processing for convex lens D Standard deviation: ÃŽ ´m = = = 0.32524 Therefore, the focal length is 10.15+ 0.33 cm The % error = = 3.2% Table 13:Data processing for convex lens E Standard deviation: ÃŽ ´m = = = 0.20508 Therefore, the focal length is 9.76 + 0.20508 cm The % error = = 2.1% Part B: Table 14: Data processing for Trial 1 Standard deviation: ÃŽ ´m = = = 0.43905 Therefore, the focal length is 19.85 + 0.44cm The % error = = 2.2% Table 15: Data processing for Trial 2 Standard deviation: ÃŽ ´m = = = 0.16976 Therefore, the focal length is 19.76 + 0.17 cm The % error = = 0.9% Table 16: Data processing for Trial 3 Standard deviation: ÃŽ ´m = = = 0.14809 Therefore, the focal length is 19.90 + 0.15 cm The % error = = 2.2% CALCULATIONS AND DATA PRESENTATION: Table 17: Data presentation for Convex lens A (cm)-1 (cm)-1 (cm)-1 <

A. K. Kraipak Case

| ASSIGNMENT ON| A. K KRAIPAK vs UNION OF INDIA| (A Case Study)| | | | AN ANALYSIS OF THE CASE OF A. K KRAIPAK VS UNION OF INDIA : INTRODUCTION: Kraipak vs Union of india is regarded as an epoch making decision as it demolishes the artificial and conceptualistic distinction between administrative and quasi judicial function as well as delinked natural justice from quasi judicial.In this case the court asserted that natural justice could be applied to the so called administrative function as well, for the rules of natural justice aim at securing justice, or to prevent miscarriage of justice, and the basic aim is to arrived at a just decision. kraipak’s case had a profound impact on the growth of administrative law in india. The liberal judicial trend in favour of applying natural justice got strengthened as a result of the kraipak’s decision. Facts of the case :In 1966, a service called The Indian Forest Service was constituted, the selection for which was to be made fro m among the officers serving in the forest department of the state. Section 3 of the All India Services Act, 1951 provides that the Central Government shall after consulting the Government of the States concerned to make rules for the regulation of recruitment and the conditions of the service of persons appointed to those All India Services. In pursuance of the power given under Section 3, Indian Forest Service (Recruitment) Rules, 1966 were made.The Rule 4(1) of the above mentioned Rules empowers the Central Government to recruit to the service any person from amongst the members of the State Forest Service adjudged suitable in accordance with such regulations as the Central Government may make in consultation with State Governments and the Commission. † Now the regulation 3 of Indian Forest Service (Initial Recruitment) Regulations, 1956 framed under Rule 4(1) of the Indian Forest Service (Recruitment) Rules, 1966 provided for the Constitution of a Special Selection Board c onsisting of: 1.The Chairman of UPSC or his nominee. 2. Inspector General of Forests of the Government of India. 3. Joint Secretary. UOI. 4. Chief Secretary of the concerned State Government. 5. Chief Conservator of Forest of the concerned State Government. The selection Board was to be headed by the Chief Conservator of the Forest of the State while the final selections were to be made by the Union Public Service Commission (U. P. S. C).In the State of Jammu and Kashmir, a Naquishbund was appointed as the acting Chief Conservator of forest and was olso a member of the selection board for recommending the names of officers for All India Forest Service was formed, The Board recommended the names of the persons including Naquishbund. The selections as finally made by the board were accepted by the Commission. On the basis of the recommendations of the Commission, the impugned list was published. Even After review Basu, Baig and Kaulwho were supersede by naquishbund for chief conservat or of forest were not selected.It must be noted that Naquishbund was also one of the candidates for All India Forest Service. Though he did not sit in the selection board at the time his name was considered for selection but he did sit in the board when the names of Basu, Baig and Kaul were considered for selection and was also involved while preparing the list of selected candidates . Aggrieved, The Gazetted Officers Association, brought a petition to the Court challenging that the selections in question were made in contravention of the Principles of Natural Justice.Arguments Advanced : The petitioners as well as the respondents raised arguments with respect to the nature of the power conferred on the selection board. The petitioners contended that Rule 4 as well as Regulation 5 prescribes that the selections should be made after ‘adjudging’ the suitability of the officers belonging to the State service. The word ‘adjudge’ the meaning of which is ‘t o judge or decide’ indicates that the power conferred on the selection board was a quasi-judicial power.It was contended on their behalf that such a power is a judicial power not an administrative one and it has to be exercised in accordance with the well accepted Rules of Natural Justice, the violation of which has been rightly claimed. Naquishbund, being a candidate for Indian Forest Service cannot be an adjudicator of the same. On the other hand, the learned Attorney General on behalf of the respondents argued that the power exercised by the selection board is not a quasi-judicial power but an administrative power.To support this contention, it was further admitted that the proceedings before the selection board were not quasi-judicial because the board was not required to decide about any ‘right’. The duty of the board was merely to select officers who in its opinion were suitable for Indian Forest Service. He interpreted the word ‘adjudge’ as be ing ‘found worthy of selection’. It was also contended by the learned Attorney General that after all the selection board was only a recommendatory body. Its recommendations had first to be perused by the Home Ministry and then by the U.P. S. C. The final recommendations were made by the U. P. S. C. Therefore, grievances of the petitioners have no real basis. Keeping in mind the validity of the administrative actions taken, all that has to be seen is whether the final decision is just or not. And finally, in the form of arguendo, it was also contended by the learned Attorney General that the mere fact that one of the members of the board was biased against some of the petitioners cannot vitiate the whole selection process Analyzing the JudgmentA five judge bench of the Apex Court held that the selections made by the selection committee were in violation of principles of natural justice. The Court found the power exercised by the Selection Board as an administrative one and tested the validity of the selections on that basis. It held that the concept of rule of law would lose its importance if the instrumentalities of the State are not charged with the duty of discharging their functions in a fair and just manner. Also, it is a must to charge dministrative authorities with the duty of discharging their functions in a fair and just manner in a Welfare State like India, where the jurisdiction of the administrative bodies is increasing at a rapid rate. In the words of Hegde, J. – â€Å"The requirement of acting judicially in essence is nothing but to act justly and fairly and not arbitrarily or capriciously. The procedures which are considered inherent in the exercise of a judicial power are merely those which facilitate if not ensure a just and fair decision. It further observed that the dividing line between an administrative power and quasi-judicial power is being gradually obliterated. The Court held that the basic principle of nemo judex in causa sua was violated by appointing Naquishbund as a member of the selection board. Though he did not participate in the deliberations of the board when his name was being considered yet the very fact that he was a member of the selection board had a significant impact on the decision of the selection board and he participated in the deliberations when the claims Basu, Baig and Kaul were considered.Under such circumstances, the Court could not believe that Naquishbund could have been unbiased, the Court observed that the question is not whether Naquishbund was actually biased or not. The real question is whether there is a reasonable ground for believing that he was likely to have been biased. Further the Court observed that the question is not whether Naquishbund was actually biased or not. The real question is whether there is a reasonable ground for believing that he was likely to have been biased, earlier in Manaklal’s case the Court had made it clear that the test wa s not actual bias but a reasonable apprehension of bias.It held that it is difficult to prove the state of mind. Therefore in deciding the question of bias ordinary course of human conduct is taken into consideration. Owing to this, the Court observed that there was a personal interest on part of Naquishbund to keep out his rivals in order to secure his position without further challenge and so he cannot said to be impartial, fair and just while making the selection. ConclusionTherefore what emerges from this case is that although the Courts are making distinctions between the Quasi-Judicial and Administrative powers but at the same time there is one common element of fair procedure in both the cases which can be referred to as the ‘duty to act fairly’. This duty arises from the same general principles, as do the rules of natural justice. The case of A. K Kraipak v. Union of India is a landmark judgement in the development of administrative law in India and has strength ened the rule of law in this country.Hedge, J. observed that â€Å"If the purpose of the rules of natural justice is to prevent miscarriage of justice one fails to see why those rules should be made inapplicable to administrative inquiries†. In the words of Krishna Iyer, J. – â€Å"Once we understand the soul of the rule as fairplay in action – and it is so- we must hold that it extends to both the fields. After all administrative power in a democratic set-up is not allergic to fairness in action and discretionary executive justice cannot degenerate into unilateral injustice. †

Gwen Harwood: Father and Child Essay

The couplet Father and Child from Gwen Harwood explores ideas of power and oppression. Barn Owl, the first poem portrays the effect of authority and the destruction that can occur when people are oppressed. In Nightfall Harwood examines how equality and mutual maturity can develop serenity and harmony. Due to these underlying concepts of authority and rebellion the couplet can be viewed through a Marxist perspective and it examines the effects of autocracy. Although Harwood was never publicly Marxist through her criticism of oppression it is possible to believe that she held similar worldview to that of a Marxist standpoint. In the beginning of Barn Owl the reader witnesses the child, â€Å"a horny fiend†, attempt to escape the oppression under her father â€Å"who is robbed of power by sleep†. Although there is no pretext given for the poem the reader can assume that she seeks to escape her overpowering father. In order to free herself from her father’s authority she needed to become the â€Å"master of life and death† by demonstrating her authority over the innocent bird. Harwood’s metaphor of the levels of authority with the father highest, followed by the child and ending with the bird reflects a non-communist society in which people are in social classes. Similar to a Capitalist culture, ultimately it is the working class, in Harwood’s metaphor the owl, who suffers under the persecution of those in higher social classes. Ultimately these ideas of power and authority cause destruction and suffering. Nightfall, the second poem in the couplet exhibits a shift in authority, where the father and child are equals. The child, now an adult has experienced the world and views her father’s authority as â€Å"ancient innocence†, no longer seeking to rebel, as in the first poem, and instead grieves the loss of her â€Å"stick-thin comforter.† As she reflects on her father’s life, she describes his â€Å"marvellous journey†. These comments are words of commendation and respect a clear shift from Barn Owl, where she seeks to reb. The peaceful death described by the words â€Å"your night and day are one†, contrasts the â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"cruel† murder of the owl in Barn Owl. Ultimately Harwood reflects on the idea that equality provides peace. Harwood never out rightly claimed to be Marxist, however the couplet Father and Child portrays underlying ideas similar to that of a Marxist worldview. Throughout both poems Harwood repeats words often associated with power and a capitalist society such as â€Å"master†, â€Å"wisp-haired judge†, â€Å"exalts† and â€Å"king†. The ending of both poems are also similar as they both end with a death. Although the death of the owl was horrific and tragic and the father’s death was peaceful, it is death all the same. Perhaps by repeating concepts of power and death Harwood is trying to draw the audience to a connection between both. She may be outlining the idea that an attempt to seek power and authority can lead to a death which â€Å"no words, no tears can mend†. This can be interpreted as critiquing a society in which power and influence are the goals, not seeking relationships or community. Father and Child is a representation of the influence of authority. In Barn Owl the audience witnesses a cycle of oppression where the weakest individuals are victims. However, Nightfall exhibits a shift in authority as the father and child are equal leading to peace. Throughout the entire piece the author repeats ideas of power and authority subtly questioning the value of a society where control is the ultimate goal, not the nurturing of relationships and the development of a community in which all people are treated as equals.

Gender Stereotypes in Othello Essay - 2033 Words

Stereotypes are commonly held generalized beliefs that most or all individuals sharing a given trait also should or do share other attributes assumed to be associated with aspects such as race, religion, and physical attribute. While stereotypes can erroneously shape people’s views of others, they can also influence the stereotyped individuals’ behavior as people often attempt to conform to these flawed images, especially in regards to gender stereotypes. Shakespeare’s great play Othello uses its main characters to embody the characteristics of the stereotypical females and males according to society’s liking. The stereotypical woman is loyal and faithful to her husband, while the male stereotype possesses strength, control, and dominance.†¦show more content†¦Shakespeare mocks society’s extreme measures by suggesting death as the sole option for Othello when he fails to understand that Desdemona may not fit female stereotypes. Without the ability to label her, Othello fails to â€Å"assert Desdemona’s chastity and corruptibility simultaneously† and â€Å"murders Desdemona to redeem her from degradation† (Neely). The characters, like many people, struggle to alter views that have been so firmly pressed into their minds. In this way, Shakespeare negatively comments on humans’ inabilities to see beyond what society tells them and to comprehend truths unique to a specific person rather than his gender roles. Shakespeare uses the characters Desdemona and Othello to display how people become accustomed to the gender identities that society defines for them. Therefore, both characters, as depicted by their deaths, fail to understand each other personally as individuals instead of as the stereotypical man or woman that is being presented. Although misperceptions about the other gender are dangerous causes of downfall, flawed views among one’s own gender are also great contributors to destruction. Othello and Desdemona best exemplify this notion. Desdemona presents herself as pure, compassionate, and understanding towards everyone, especially Othello. Shakespeare theorizes on how some women believe the stereotype about females is valid and must be followed, and men can exhibit the sameShow MoreRelatedIn many of his plays, Shakespeare demonstrates ideas of gender and racial stereotypes. Othello, a1100 Words   |  5 Pagesplays, Shakespeare demonstrates ideas of gender and racial stereotypes. Othello, a play in which characters are judged based on sex and appearance, is an example of these stereotypes. Othello’s non-white ethnic background provides a platform for racial conflict. The characters of Desdemona and Emilia allow for sexism and gender conflict. These themes of Othello are closely related becaus e of the similar prejudice and stereotypes. 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